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<title>Bandwidth (computing)</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Bandwidth (computing)</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about use in computing and networking expressed in bits per second. For the concept in signal theory and processing measured in hertz, see <a href="Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">Bandwidth (signal processing)</a>. For other uses, see <a href="Bandwidth_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bandwidth (disambiguation)">Bandwidth (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

</p><p>In <a href="Computing" title="Computing">computing</a>, <b>bandwidth</b> is the maximum rate of data transfer across a given path. Bandwidth may be characterized as <b>network bandwidth</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>data bandwidth</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>digital bandwidth</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>This definition of <i>bandwidth</i> is in contrast to the field of <a href="Signal_processing" title="Signal processing">signal processing</a>, <a href="Wireless_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless communications">wireless communications</a>, <a href="Modem" title="Modem">modem data transmission</a>, <a href="Digital_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital communications">digital communications</a>, and <a href="Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a>, in which <i>bandwidth</i> is used to refer to the <a href="Signal_bandwidth" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal bandwidth">signal bandwidth</a> measured in <a href="Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a>, meaning the frequency range between lowest and highest attainable frequency while meeting a well-defined impairment level in signal power. The actual bit rate that can be achieved depends not only on the signal bandwidth but also on the <a href="Noise" title="Noise">noise</a> on the channel.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Network_capacity">Network capacity</h2></div>

<p>The term <i>bandwidth</i> sometimes defines the <a href="Net_bit_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Net bit rate">net bit rate</a> <i>peak bit rate</i>, <i>information rate</i>, or physical layer <i>useful bit rate</i>, <a href="Channel_capacity" title="Channel capacity">channel capacity</a>, or the <a href="Maximum_throughput" class="mw-redirect" title="Maximum throughput">maximum throughput</a> of a logical or physical communication path in a digital communication system. For example, <a href="Bandwidth_test" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandwidth test">bandwidth tests</a> measure the maximum throughput of a computer network. The maximum rate that can be sustained on a link is limited by the <a href="Shannon%E2%80%93Hartley" class="mw-redirect" title="Shannon–Hartley">Shannon–Hartley</a> channel capacity for these communication systems, which is dependent on the <a href="Bandwidth_(signal_processing)" title="Bandwidth (signal processing)">bandwidth</a> in hertz and the noise on the channel.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Network_consumption">Network consumption</h2></div>

<p>The <i>consumed bandwidth</i> in bit/s, corresponds to achieved <a href="Throughput" class="mw-redirect" title="Throughput">throughput</a> or <a href="Goodput" title="Goodput">goodput</a>, i.e., the average rate of successful data transfer through a communication path. The consumed bandwidth can be affected by technologies such as <a href="Bandwidth_shaping" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandwidth shaping">bandwidth shaping</a>, <a href="Bandwidth_management" title="Bandwidth management">bandwidth management</a>, <a href="Bandwidth_throttling" title="Bandwidth throttling">bandwidth throttling</a>, <a href="Bandwidth_cap" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandwidth cap">bandwidth cap</a>, <a href="Bandwidth_allocation" title="Bandwidth allocation">bandwidth allocation</a> (for example <a href="Bandwidth_allocation_protocol" title="Bandwidth allocation protocol">bandwidth allocation protocol</a> and <a href="Dynamic_bandwidth_allocation" title="Dynamic bandwidth allocation">dynamic bandwidth allocation</a>), etc. A bit stream's bandwidth is proportional to the average consumed signal bandwidth in hertz (the average spectral bandwidth of the analog signal representing the bit stream) during a studied time interval.

</p><p><i>Channel bandwidth</i> may be confused with useful data throughput (or goodput). For example, a channel with <i>x</i> bit/s may not necessarily transmit data at <i>x</i> rate, since protocols, encryption, and other factors can add appreciable overhead. For instance, much internet traffic uses the <a href="Transmission_control_protocol" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission control protocol">transmission control protocol</a> (TCP), which requires a <a href="Three-way_handshake" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-way handshake">three-way handshake</a> for each transaction. Although in many modern implementations the protocol is efficient, it does add significant overhead compared to simpler protocols. Also, data packets may be lost, which further reduces the useful data throughput. In general, for any effective digital communication, a framing protocol is needed; overhead and effective throughput depends on implementation. Useful throughput is less than or equal to the actual channel capacity minus implementation overhead.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maximum_throughput">Maximum throughput</h2></div>

<p>The <a href="Asymptotic_bandwidth" class="mw-redirect" title="Asymptotic bandwidth">asymptotic bandwidth</a> (formally <i>asymptotic throughput</i>) for a network is the measure of maximum throughput for a <a href="Greedy_source" title="Greedy source">greedy source</a>, for example when the message size (the number of packets per second from a source) approaches close to the maximum amount.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Asymptotic bandwidths are usually estimated by sending a number of very large messages through the network, measuring the end-to-end throughput. As with other bandwidths, the asymptotic bandwidth is measured in multiples of bits per seconds. Since bandwidth spikes can skew the measurement, carriers often use the 95th <a href="Percentile" title="Percentile">percentile</a> method. This method continuously measures bandwidth usage and then removes the top 5 percent.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Multimedia">Multimedia</h2></div>

<p>Digital bandwidth may also refer to: <a href="Bit_rate#Multimedia" title="Bit rate">multimedia bit rate</a> or <a href="Average_bitrate" title="Average bitrate">average bitrate</a> after multimedia <a href="Data_compression" title="Data compression">data compression</a> (<a href="Source_coding" class="mw-redirect" title="Source coding">source coding</a>), defined as the total amount of data divided by the playback time.

</p><p>Due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed <a href="Digital_media" title="Digital media">digital media</a>, the required multimedia bandwidth can be significantly reduced with data compression.<sup id="cite_ref-Lee_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lee-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most widely used data compression technique for media bandwidth reduction is the <a href="Discrete_cosine_transform" title="Discrete cosine transform">discrete cosine transform</a> (DCT), which was first proposed by <a href="Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a> in the early 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Stankovic_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stankovic-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> DCT compression significantly reduces the amount of memory and bandwidth required for digital signals, capable of achieving a <a href="Data_compression_ratio" title="Data compression ratio">data compression ratio</a> of up to 100:1 compared to uncompressed media.<sup id="cite_ref-Lea_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lea-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Web_hosting">Web hosting</h2></div>

<p>In <a href="Web_hosting_service" title="Web hosting service">Web hosting service</a>, the term <i>bandwidth</i> is often used to describe the amount of data transferred to or from the website or server within a prescribed period of time, for example <i>bandwidth consumption accumulated over a month</i> measured in gigabytes per month.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The more accurate phrase used for this meaning of a maximum amount of data transfer each month or given period is <i>monthly data transfer</i>.

</p><p>A similar situation can occur for end-user <a href="Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">Internet service providers</a> as well, especially where network capacity is limited (for example in areas with underdeveloped internet connectivity and on wireless networks).

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internet_connections">Internet connections</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="List_of_interface_bit_rates" title="List of interface bit rates">List of interface bit rates</a> and <a href="Bit_rate#Progress_trends" title="Bit rate">Bit rate § Progress trends</a></div>

<caption>Maximum physical layer net bandwidth of common Internet access technologies

</caption>

<th>Bit rate

</th>

<th>Connection type

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<td>56 kbit/s

</td>

<td><a href="Dialup" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialup">Dialup</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1.5 Mbit/s

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1.544 Mbit/s

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2.048 Mbit/s

</td>

<td>E1 / <a href="E-carrier" title="E-carrier">E-carrier</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>4 Mbit/s

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>10 Mbit/s

</td>

<td><a href="Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>11 Mbit/s

</td>

<td>Wireless <a href="802.11b" class="mw-redirect" title="802.11b">802.11b</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>24 Mbit/s

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>44.736 Mbit/s

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>54 Mbit/s

</td>

<td>Wireless <a href="802.11g" class="mw-redirect" title="802.11g">802.11g</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>100 Mbit/s

</td>

<td><a href="Fast_Ethernet" title="Fast Ethernet">Fast Ethernet</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>155 Mbit/s

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>600 Mbit/s

</td>

<td>Wireless <a href="802.11n" class="mw-redirect" title="802.11n">802.11n</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>622 Mbit/s

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1 Gbit/s

</td>

<td><a href="Gigabit_Ethernet" title="Gigabit Ethernet">Gigabit Ethernet</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>1.3 Gbit/s

</td>

<td>Wireless <a href="802.11ac" class="mw-redirect" title="802.11ac">802.11ac</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>2.5 Gbit/s

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>5 Gbit/s

</td>

<td><a href="USB_3.2" class="mw-redirect" title="USB 3.2">SuperSpeed USB</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>7 Gbit/s

</td>

<td>Wireless <a href="802.11ad" class="mw-redirect" title="802.11ad">802.11ad</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>9.6 Gbit/s

</td>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>10 Gbit/s

</td>

<td><a href="10_Gigabit_Ethernet" title="10 Gigabit Ethernet">10 Gigabit Ethernet</a>, <a href="USB_3.2" class="mw-redirect" title="USB 3.2">SuperSpeed USB 10 Gbit/s</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>20 Gbit/s

</td>

<td><a href="USB_3.2" class="mw-redirect" title="USB 3.2">SuperSpeed USB 20 Gbit/s</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>40 Gbit/s

</td>

<td><a href="Thunderbolt_3" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunderbolt 3">Thunderbolt 3</a>

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>100 Gbit/s

</td>

<td><a href="100_Gigabit_Ethernet" title="100 Gigabit Ethernet">100 Gigabit Ethernet</a>

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Edholm's_law">Edholm's law</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Edholm's_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></div>

<p>Edholm's law, proposed by and named after Phil Edholm in 2004,<sup id="cite_ref-Cherry_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherry-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> holds that the bandwidth of <a href="Telecommunication_network" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication network">telecommunication networks</a> double every 18 months, which has proven to be true since the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Cherry_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherry-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The trend is evident in the cases of <a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Cherry_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cherry-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">cellular</a> (mobile), <a href="Wireless_LAN" title="Wireless LAN">wireless LAN</a> and <a href="Personal_area_network" title="Personal area network">wireless personal area networks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The <a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor) is the most important factor enabling the rapid increase in bandwidth.<sup id="cite_ref-Jindal_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jindal-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The MOSFET (MOS transistor) was invented by <a href="Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a> and <a href="Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a> at <a href="Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> in 1959,<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lojek_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lojek-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and went on to become the basic building block of modern <a href="Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">telecommunications</a> technology.<sup id="cite_ref-triumph_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-triumph-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Raymer_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Raymer-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Continuous <a href="MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET scaling">MOSFET scaling</a>, along with various advances in MOS technology, has enabled both <a href="Moore's_law" title="Moore's law">Moore's law</a> (<a href="Transistor_count" title="Transistor count">transistor counts</a> in <a href="Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> chips doubling every two years) and Edholm's law (communication bandwidth doubling every 18 months).<sup id="cite_ref-Jindal_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jindal-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="Douglas_Comer" title="Douglas Comer">Douglas Comer</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tm-evHmOs3oC&dq=%22network+bandwidth%22+%22computer+networks%22&pg=PA99">Computer Networks and Internets</a>, page 99 ff, Prentice Hall 2008.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fred Halsall, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HrXbAAAAMAAJ&q=%100data+bandwidth%100+Introduction">to data+communications and computer networks</a>, page 108, Addison-Wesley, 1985.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7gqsZmr5HJcC&q=+0digital+bandwidth+0+%22">Cisco Networking Academy Program: CCNA 1 and 2 companion guide, Volym 1–2</a>, Cisco Academy 2003</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Behrouz A. Forouzan, <i>Data communications and networking</i>, McGraw-Hill, 2007</span>

</li>

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<li id="cite_note-Stankovic-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stankovic_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFStankovićAstola2012" class="citation journal cs1">Stanković, Radomir S.; Astola, Jaakko T. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ticsp.cs.tut.fi/reports/ticsp-report-60-reprint-rao-corrected.pdf">"Reminiscences of the Early Work in DCT: Interview with K.R. Rao"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Reprints from the Early Days of Information Sciences</i>. <b>60</b><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Lea-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lea_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLea1994" class="citation book cs1">Lea, William (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190920082623/https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/RP94-68"><i>Video on demand: Research Paper 94/68</i></a>. <a href="House_of_Commons_Library" title="House of Commons Library">House of Commons Library</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/RP94-68">the original</a> on 20 September 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 September</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLow2022" class="citation web cs1">Low, Jerry (27 March 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webhostingsecretrevealed.net/blog/web-hosting-guides/how-much-bandwidth-does-your-site-really-need/">"How Much Hosting Bandwidth Do I Need For My Website?"</a>. <i>WHSR</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Cherry-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cherry_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cherry_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cherry_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCherry2004" class="citation journal cs1">Cherry, Steven (2004). "Edholm's law of bandwidth". <i>IEEE Spectrum</i>. <b>41</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">58–</span>60. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FMSPEC.2004.1309810">10.1109/MSPEC.2004.1309810</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27580722">27580722</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-:1-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFDengMahmoudivan_Roermund2012" class="citation book cs1">Deng, Wei; Mahmoudi, Reza; van Roermund, Arthur (2012). <i>Time Multiplexed Beam-Forming with Space-Frequency Transformation</i>. New York: Springer. p. 1. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781461450450</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Jindal-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Jindal_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Jindal_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFJindal2009" class="citation book cs1">Jindal, Renuka P. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://events.vtools.ieee.org/m/195547">"From millibits to terabits per second and beyond - over 60 years of innovation"</a>. <i>2009 2nd International Workshop on Electron Devices and Semiconductor Technology</i>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>6. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FEDST.2009.5166093">10.1109/EDST.2009.5166093</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4244-3831-0</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25112828">25112828</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-computerhistory-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/">"1960 - Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated"</a>. <i>The Silicon Engine</i>. <a href="Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Lojek-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lojek_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLojek2007" class="citation book cs1">Lojek, Bo (2007). <i>History of Semiconductor Engineering</i>. <a href="Springer_Science_%26_Business_Media" class="mw-redirect" title="Springer Science & Business Media">Springer Science & Business Media</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">321–</span>3. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9783540342588</bdi>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-computerhistory-transistor-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-computerhistory-transistor_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/">"Who Invented the Transistor?"</a>. <i><a href="Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a></i>. 4 December 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-triumph-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-triumph_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6fBEjf9WPw">"Triumph of the MOS Transistor"</a>. <i><a href="YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a></i>. <a href="Computer_History_Museum" title="Computer History Museum">Computer History Museum</a>. 6 August 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211107/q6fBEjf9WPw">Archived</a> from the original on 2021-11-07<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 July</span> 2019</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Raymer-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Raymer_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRaymer2009" class="citation book cs1">Raymer, Michael G. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PLYChGDqa6EC&pg=PA365"><i>The Silicon Web: Physics for the Internet Age</i></a>. <a href="CRC_Press" title="CRC Press">CRC Press</a>. p. 365. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781439803127</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

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</style><div id="Telecommunications802" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Telecommunications" title="Telecommunications">Telecommunications</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Beacon#For_defensive_communications" title="Beacon">Beacon</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_broadcasting" title="History of broadcasting">Broadcasting</a></li>

<li><a href="Cable_protection_system" title="Cable protection system">Cable protection system</a></li>

<li><a href="Cable_television" title="Cable television">Cable TV</a></li>

<li><a href="Communications_satellite#History" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_network#History" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_compression" title="Data compression">Data compression</a>

<ul><li><a href="Audio_coding_format" title="Audio coding format">audio</a></li>

<li><a href="Image_compression" title="Image compression">image</a></li>

<li><a href="Video_coding_format" title="Video coding format">video</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Digital_media" title="Digital media">Digital media</a>

<ul><li><a href="Internet_video" title="Internet video">Internet video</a></li>

<li><a href="Online_video_platform" title="Online video platform">online video platform</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_media" title="Social media">social media</a></li>

<li><a href="Streaming_media" title="Streaming media">streaming</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Drums_in_communication" title="Drums in communication">Drums</a></li>

<li><a href="Edholm's_law" title="Edholm's law">Edholm's law</a></li>

<li><a href="Electrical_telegraph#History" title="Electrical telegraph">Electrical telegraph</a></li>

<li><a href="Heliograph#History" title="Heliograph">Heliographs</a></li>

<li><a href="Hydraulic_telegraph#Greek_hydraulic_semaphore_system" title="Hydraulic telegraph">Hydraulic telegraph</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Information revolution">Information revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_Internet" title="History of the Internet">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Mass_media#History" title="Mass media">Mass media</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_mobile_phones" title="History of mobile phones">Mobile phone</a>

<ul><li><a href="Smartphone" title="Smartphone">Smartphone</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Optical_communication" title="Optical communication">Optical telecommunication</a></li>

<li><a href="Optical_telegraph" title="Optical telegraph">Optical telegraphy</a></li>

<li><a href="Pager" title="Pager">Pager</a></li>

<li><a href="Photophone" title="Photophone">Photophone</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_prepaid_mobile_phones" title="History of prepaid mobile phones">Prepaid mobile phone</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_radio" title="History of radio">Radio</a></li>

<li><a href="Radiotelephone" title="Radiotelephone">Radiotelephone</a></li>

<li><a href="Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Satellite communications</a></li>

<li><a href="Semaphore" title="Semaphore">Semaphore</a>

<ul><li><a href="Phryctoria" title="Phryctoria">Phryctoria</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">Semiconductor</a>

<ul><li><a href="Semiconductor_device" title="Semiconductor device">device</a></li>

<li><a href="MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_transistor" title="History of the transistor">transistor</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Smoke_signal" title="Smoke signal">Smoke signals</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_telecommunication" title="History of telecommunication">Telecommunications history</a></li>

<li><a href="Telautograph" title="Telautograph">Telautograph</a></li>

<li><a href="Telegraphy" title="Telegraphy">Telegraphy</a></li>

<li><a href="Teleprinter" title="Teleprinter">Teleprinter</a> (teletype)</li>

<li><a href="History_of_the_telephone" title="History of the telephone">Telephone</a></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Telephone_Cases" title="The Telephone Cases">The Telephone Cases</a></i></li>

<li><a href="History_of_television" title="History of television">Television</a>

<ul><li><a href="Digital_television" title="Digital television">digital</a></li>

<li><a href="Streaming_television" title="Streaming television">streaming</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Submarine_communications_cable#Early_history:_telegraph_and_coaxial_cables" title="Submarine communications cable">Undersea telegraph line</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_videotelephony" title="History of videotelephony">Videotelephony</a></li>

<li><a href="Whistled_language" title="Whistled language">Whistled language</a></li>

<li><a href="Wireless_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless revolution">Wireless revolution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nasir_Ahmed_(engineer)" title="Nasir Ahmed (engineer)">Nasir Ahmed</a></li>

<li><a href="Edwin_Howard_Armstrong" title="Edwin Howard Armstrong">Edwin Howard Armstrong</a></li>

<li><a href="Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Logie_Baird" title="John Logie Baird">John Logie Baird</a></li>

<li><a href="Paul_Baran" title="Paul Baran">Paul Baran</a></li>

<li><a href="John_Bardeen" title="John Bardeen">John Bardeen</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a></li>

<li><a href="Emile_Berliner" title="Emile Berliner">Emile Berliner</a></li>

<li><a href="Tim_Berners-Lee" title="Tim Berners-Lee">Tim Berners-Lee</a></li>

<li><a href="Francis_Blake_(inventor)" title="Francis Blake (inventor)">Francis Blake</a></li>

<li><a href="Jagadish_Chandra_Bose" title="Jagadish Chandra Bose">Jagadish Chandra Bose</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Bourseul" title="Charles Bourseul">Charles Bourseul</a></li>

<li><a href="Walter_Houser_Brattain" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Houser Brattain">Walter Houser Brattain</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Chappe" title="Claude Chappe">Claude Chappe</a></li>

<li><a href="Yogen_Dalal" class="mw-redirect" title="Yogen Dalal">Yogen Dalal</a></li>

<li><a href="Donald_Davies" title="Donald Davies">Donald Davies</a></li>

<li><a href="Daniel_Davis_Jr." title="Daniel Davis Jr.">Daniel Davis Jr.</a></li>

<li><a href="Amos_Dolbear" title="Amos Dolbear">Amos Dolbear</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a></li>

<li><a href="Philo_Farnsworth" title="Philo Farnsworth">Philo Farnsworth</a></li>

<li><a href="Reginald_Fessenden" title="Reginald Fessenden">Reginald Fessenden</a></li>

<li><a href="Lee_de_Forest" title="Lee de Forest">Lee de Forest</a></li>

<li><a href="Elisha_Gray" title="Elisha Gray">Elisha Gray</a></li>

<li><a href="Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a></li>

<li><a href="Erna_Schneider_Hoover" title="Erna Schneider Hoover">Erna Schneider Hoover</a></li>

<li><a href="Harold_Hopkins_(physicist)" title="Harold Hopkins (physicist)">Harold Hopkins</a></li>

<li><a href="Gardiner_Greene_Hubbard" title="Gardiner Greene Hubbard">Gardiner Greene Hubbard</a></li>

<li><a href="Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_K._Kao" title="Charles K. Kao">Charles K. Kao</a></li>

<li><a href="Narinder_Singh_Kapany" title="Narinder Singh Kapany">Narinder Singh Kapany</a></li>

<li><a href="Hedy_Lamarr" title="Hedy Lamarr">Hedy Lamarr</a></li>

<li><a href="Roberto_Landell_de_Moura" title="Roberto Landell de Moura">Roberto Landell</a></li>

<li><a href="Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a></li>

<li><a href="Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a></li>

<li><a href="Robert_Metcalfe" title="Robert Metcalfe">Robert Metcalfe</a></li>

<li><a href="Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a></li>

<li><a href="Samuel_Morse" title="Samuel Morse">Samuel Morse</a></li>

<li><a href="Jun-ichi_Nishizawa" title="Jun-ichi Nishizawa">Jun-ichi Nishizawa</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Grafton_Page" title="Charles Grafton Page">Charles Grafton Page</a></li>

<li><a href="Radia_Perlman" title="Radia Perlman">Radia Perlman</a></li>

<li><a href="Alexander_Stepanovich_Popov" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Stepanovich Popov">Alexander Stepanovich Popov</a></li>

<li><a href="Tivadar_Pusk%C3%A1s" title="Tivadar Puskás">Tivadar Puskás</a></li>

<li><a href="Johann_Philipp_Reis" title="Johann Philipp Reis">Johann Philipp Reis</a></li>

<li><a href="Claude_Shannon" title="Claude Shannon">Claude Shannon</a></li>

<li><a href="Almon_Brown_Strowger" title="Almon Brown Strowger">Almon Brown Strowger</a></li>

<li><a href="Henry_Sutton_(inventor)" title="Henry Sutton (inventor)">Henry Sutton</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Sumner_Tainter" title="Charles Sumner Tainter">Charles Sumner Tainter</a></li>

<li><a href="Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a></li>

<li><a href="Camille_Tissot" title="Camille Tissot">Camille Tissot</a></li>

<li><a href="Alfred_Vail" title="Alfred Vail">Alfred Vail</a></li>

<li><a href="Thomas_A._Watson" title="Thomas A. Watson">Thomas A. Watson</a></li>

<li><a href="Charles_Wheatstone" title="Charles Wheatstone">Charles Wheatstone</a></li>

<li><a href="Vladimir_K._Zworykin" title="Vladimir K. Zworykin">Vladimir K. Zworykin</a></li>

<li><i><a href="List_of_Internet_pioneers" title="List of Internet pioneers">Internet pioneers</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Transmission_medium" title="Transmission medium">Transmission<br>media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Coaxial_cable" title="Coaxial cable">Coaxial cable</a></li>

<li><a href="Fiber-optic_communication" title="Fiber-optic communication">Fiber-optic communication</a>

<ul><li><a href="Optical_fiber" title="Optical fiber">optical fiber</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Free-space_optical_communication" title="Free-space optical communication">Free-space optical communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_communication" title="Molecular communication">Molecular communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">Radio waves</a>

<ul><li><a href="Wireless" title="Wireless">wireless</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Transmission_line" title="Transmission line">Transmission line</a>

<ul><li><a href="Telecommunication_circuit" title="Telecommunication circuit">telecommunication circuit</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Network_topology" title="Network topology">Network topology</a><br>and switching</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul>

<li><a href="Telecommunications_link" title="Telecommunications link">Links</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_switch" title="Network switch">Network switching</a>

<ul><li><a href="Circuit_switching" title="Circuit switching">circuit</a></li>

<li><a href="Packet_switching" title="Packet switching">packet</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Node_(networking)" title="Node (networking)">Nodes</a>

<ul><li><a href="Terminal_(telecommunication)" title="Terminal (telecommunication)">terminal</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Telephone_exchange" title="Telephone exchange">Telephone exchange</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Multiplexing" title="Multiplexing">Multiplexing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Space-division_multiple_access" title="Space-division multiple access">Space-division</a></li>

<li><a href="Frequency-division_multiplexing" title="Frequency-division multiplexing">Frequency-division</a></li>

<li><a href="Time-division_multiplexing" title="Time-division multiplexing">Time-division</a></li>

<li><a href="Polarization-division_multiplexing" title="Polarization-division multiplexing">Polarization-division</a></li>

<li><a href="Orbital_angular_momentum_multiplexing" title="Orbital angular momentum multiplexing">Orbital angular-momentum</a></li>

<li><a href="Code-division_multiple_access" title="Code-division multiple access">Code-division</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Communication_protocol" title="Communication protocol">Communication protocol</a></li>

<li><a href="Computer_network" title="Computer network">Computer network</a></li>

<li><a href="Data_communication" title="Data communication">Data transmission</a></li>

<li><a href="Store_and_forward" title="Store and forward">Store and forward</a></li>

<li><a href="Telecommunications_equipment" title="Telecommunications equipment">Telecommunications equipment</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Types of network</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cellular_network" title="Cellular network">Cellular network</a></li>

<li><a href="Ethernet" title="Ethernet">Ethernet</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_telephony" title="Mobile telephony">Mobile</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_switched_telephone_network" title="Public switched telephone network">Public Switched Telephone</a></li>

<li><a href="Radio_network" title="Radio network">Radio</a></li>

<li><a href="Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">Television</a></li>

<li><a href="Telex" title="Telex">Telex</a></li>

<li><a href="Wireless_network" title="Wireless network">Wireless network</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Telecommunications_network" title="Telecommunications network">Notable networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="ARPANET" title="ARPANET">ARPANET</a></li>

<li><a href="BITNET" title="BITNET">BITNET</a></li>

<li><a href="CYCLADES" title="CYCLADES">CYCLADES</a></li>

<li><a href="FidoNet" title="FidoNet">FidoNet</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet" title="Internet">Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="Internet2" title="Internet2">Internet2</a></li>

<li><a href="JANET" title="JANET">JANET</a></li>

<li><a href="NPL_network" title="NPL network">NPL network</a></li>

<li><a href="TANet" title="TANet">TANet</a></li>

<li><a href="Toasternet" title="Toasternet">Toasternet</a></li>

<li><a href="Usenet" title="Usenet">Usenet</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Locations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Africa</li>

<li>Americas

<ul><li>North</li>

<li>South</li></ul></li>

<li>Antarctica</li>

<li>Europe</li>

<li>Oceania</li>

<li><i><a href="List_of_telecommunications_regulatory_bodies" title="List of telecommunications regulatory bodies">Global telecommunications regulation bodies</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span></span></span> </span><a href="Portal%3ATelecommunication" title="Portal:Telecommunication">Telecommunication portal</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_telecommunication" title="Outline of telecommunication">Outline</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Telecommunications" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Telecommunications">Commons</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-22" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Bandwidth_(computing)&oldid=1291671220">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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